The formation and structure of iron-dominated planetesimals

¹ Laboratory for Laser Energetics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
² Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA
³ Institute of Mineralogy, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
⁴ Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, TU Delft, Delft, The Netherlands
⁵ Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, CO 80302, USA
⁶ Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
⁷ Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

^★ Corresponding author: tsuer@lle.rochester.edu

Received: 21 March 2025
Accepted: 2 September 2025

Abstract

Context. Metal-rich asteroids and iron meteorites are considered core remnants of differentiated planetesimals and/or products of oxygen-depleted accretion.

Aims. Investigating the origins of iron-rich planetesimals could provide key insights into planet formation mechanisms.

Methods. Using differentiation models, we evaluate the interior structure and composition of representative-sized planetesimals (~200 km diameter), while varying oxygen fugacity and initial bulk meteoritic composition.

Results. Under the oxygen-poor conditions that likely existed early in the inner regions of the Solar System and other protoplanetary disks, core fractions remain relatively consistent across a range of bulk compositions (CI, H, EH, and CBa). Some of these cores could incorporate significant amounts of silicon (10–30 weight%) and explain the metal fractions of Fe-rich bodies in the absence of mantle stripping. Conversely, planetesimals forming under more oxidizing conditions, such as beyond snow lines, could exhibit smaller cores, enriched in carbon, sulfur (>1 wt%), and oxides. Sulfur-rich cores, like those formed from EH and H bulk compositions, could remain partly molten, sustain dynamos, and even drive sulfur-rich volcanism. Additionally, bodies with high carbon contents, such as CI compositions, can form graphitic outer layers.

Conclusions. These variations highlight the importance of initial formation conditions in shaping planetesimal structures. Future missions, such as NASA’s Psyche mission, offer an opportunity to measure the relative abundances of key elements (Fe, Ni, Si, and S) necessary to distinguish among formation scenarios and structure models for Fe-rich and reduced planetesimals.