Euclid preparation

LXXVI. Simulating thousands of Euclid spectroscopic skies

¹ Dipartimento di Fisica – Sezione di Astronomia, Università di Trieste, Via Tiepolo 11, 34131 Trieste, Italy
² INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy
³ INFN, Sezione di Trieste, Via Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, TS, Italy
⁴ ICSC – Centro Nazionale di Ricerca in High Performance Computing, Big Data e Quantum Computing, Via Magnanelli 2, Bologna, Italy
⁵ Institute of Space Sciences (ICE, CSIC), Campus UAB, Carrer de Can Magrans, s/n, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
⁶ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli studi di Genova, and INFN-Sezione di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146 Genova, Italy
⁷ SISSA, International School for Advanced Studies, Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, TS, Italy
⁸ IFPU, Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe, Via Beirut 2, 34151 Trieste, Italy
⁹ INFN-Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
¹⁰ Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
¹¹ California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
¹² INAF-IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy
¹³ Institut d’Estudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC), Edifici RDIT, Campus UPC, 08860 Castelldefels, Barcelona, Spain
¹⁴ Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Avenida Complutense 40, 28040 Madrid, Spain
¹⁵ Port d’Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain
¹⁶ Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France
¹⁷ Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, UMR 7095, CNRS, and Sorbonne Université, 98 bis boulevard Arago, 75014 Paris, France
¹⁸ Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA
¹⁹ Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe(WPI), University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8583, Japan
²⁰ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “G. Galilei”, Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
²¹ Waterloo Centre for Astrophysics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
²² Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
²³ Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 2Y5, Canada
²⁴ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy
²⁵ INFN-Sezione di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146 Genova, Italy
²⁶ Minnesota Institute for Astrophysics, University of Minnesota, 116 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
²⁷ Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
²⁸ ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain
²⁹ INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy
³⁰ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Bologna, Via Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy
³¹ INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
³² Institut de Physique Théorique, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
³³ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146 Genova, Italy
³⁴ Department of Physics “E. Pancini”, University Federico II, Via Cinthia 6, 80126 Napoli, Italy
³⁵ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, Via Moiariello 16, 80131 Napoli, Italy
³⁶ Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Rua das Estrelas, PT4150-762 Porto, Portugal
³⁷ Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo de Alegre, 4150-007 Porto, Portugal
³⁸ European Southern Observatory, Karl-Schwarzschild-Str. 2, 85748 Garching, Germany
³⁹ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy
⁴⁰ INFN-Sezione di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy
⁴¹ INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Via Osservatorio 20, 10025 Pino, Torinese (TO), Italy
⁴² European Space Agency/ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands
⁴³ Institute Lorentz, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
⁴⁴ Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
⁴⁵ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy
⁴⁶ INFN-Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro, 2 – c/o Dipartimento di Fisica, Edificio G. Marconi, 00185 Roma, Italy
⁴⁷ Institute for Theoretical Particle Physics and Cosmology (TTK), RWTH Aachen University, 52056 Aachen, Germany
⁴⁸ INFN section of Naples, Via Cinthia 6, 80126 Napoli, Italy
⁴⁹ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “Augusto Righi” – Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
⁵⁰ Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, Vía Láctea, 38205 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
⁵¹ Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK
⁵² Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
⁵³ European Space Agency/ESRIN, Largo Galileo Galilei 1, 00044 Frascati, Roma, Italy
⁵⁴ Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I Lyon, UMR 5822, Villeurbanne F-69100, France
⁵⁵ Institut de Ciències del Cosmos (ICCUB), Universitat de Barcelona (IEEC-UB), Martí i Franquès 1, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
⁵⁶ Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Passeig de Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
⁵⁷ UCB Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IUF, IP2I Lyon, 4 rue Enrico Fermi, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
⁵⁸ Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Edifício C8, Campo Grande, PT1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
⁵⁹ Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016, Lisboa, Portugal
⁶⁰ Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d’Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland
⁶¹ INAF-Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00100 Roma, Italy
⁶² Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS/IN2P3, CPPM, Marseille, France
⁶³ Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
⁶⁴ INFN-Bologna, Via Irnerio 46, 40126 Bologna, Italy
⁶⁵ University Observatory, LMU Faculty of Physics, Scheinerstrasse 1, 81679 Munich, Germany
⁶⁶ Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
⁶⁷ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Via dell’Osservatorio 5, 35122 Padova, Italy
⁶⁸ Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstrasse 1, 81679 München, Germany
⁶⁹ Dipartimento di Fisica “Aldo Pontremoli”, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 16, 20133 Milano, Italy
⁷⁰ INFN-Sezione di Milano, Via Celoria 16, 20133 Milano, Italy
⁷¹ Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1029 Blindern, 0315, Oslo, Norway
⁷² Felix Hormuth Engineering, Goethestr. 17, 69181 Leimen, Germany
⁷³ Technical University of Denmark, Elektrovej 327, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
⁷⁴ Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN), Denmark
⁷⁵ Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
⁷⁶ NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt MD 20771, USA
⁷⁷ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
⁷⁸ Department of Physics and Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
⁷⁹ Université de Genève, Département de Physique Théorique and Centre for Astroparticle Physics, 24 quai Ernest-Ansermet, CH-1211 Genève 4, Switzerland
⁸⁰ Department of Physics, P.O. Box 64 University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
⁸¹ Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
⁸² Laboratoire d’etude de l’Univers et des phenomenes eXtremes, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 92190 Meudon, France
⁸³ SKA Observatory, Jodrell Bank, Lower Withington, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK11 9FT, UK
⁸⁴ Universität Bonn, Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany
⁸⁵ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “Augusto Righi” – Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy
⁸⁶ Department of Physics, Institute for Computational Cosmology, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
⁸⁷ Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Astroparticule et Cosmologie, 75013 Paris, France
⁸⁸ CNRS-UCB International Research Laboratory, Centre Pierre Binétruy, IRL2007, CPB-IN2P3, Berkeley, USA
⁸⁹ University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Northwestern Switzerland, School of Engineering, 5210 Windisch, Switzerland
⁹⁰ Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, 98bis Boulevard Arago, 75014 Paris, France
⁹¹ Institute of Physics, Laboratory of Astrophysics, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Observatoire de Sauverny, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland
⁹² Telespazio UK S.L. for European Space Agency (ESA), Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
⁹³ Institut de Física d’Altes Energies (IFAE), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain
⁹⁴ DARK, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 155, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
⁹⁵ Space Science Data Center, Italian Space Agency, Via del Politecnico snc, 00133 Roma, Italy
⁹⁶ Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales – Centre spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
⁹⁷ Institute of Space Science, Str. Atomistilor, nr. 409 Măgurele, Ilfov 077125, Romania
⁹⁸ Institut für Theoretische Physik, University of Heidelberg, Philosophenweg 16, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
⁹⁹ Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie (IRAP), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, CNES, 14 Av. Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France
¹⁰⁰ Université St Joseph; Faculty of Sciences, Beirut, Lebanon
¹⁰¹ Departamento de Física, FCFM, Universidad de Chile, Blanco Encalada 2008, Santiago, Chile
¹⁰² Universität Innsbruck, Institut für Astro- und Teilchenphysik, Technikerstr. 25/8, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
¹⁰³ Satlantis, University Science Park, Sede Bld 48940, Leioa-Bilbao, Spain
¹⁰⁴ Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-018 Lisboa, Portugal
¹⁰⁵ Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN)
¹⁰⁶ Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 128, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
¹⁰⁷ extra Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Departamento de Electrónica y Tecnología de Computadoras, Plaza del Hospital 1, 30202 Cartagena, Spain
¹⁰⁸ Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 800 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
¹⁰⁹ Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Via Giuseppe Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
¹¹⁰ Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Ferrara, Via Giuseppe Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
¹¹¹ INAF, Istituto di Radioastronomia, Via Piero Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
¹¹² Astronomical Observatory of the Autonomous Region of the Aosta Valley (OAVdA), Loc. Lignan 39, I-11020 Nus (Aosta Valley), Italy
¹¹³ Université Côte d’Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Lagrange, Bd de l’Observatoire, CS 34229, 06304 Nice cedex 4, France
¹¹⁴ Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut d’astrophysique spatiale, 91405 Orsay, France
¹¹⁵ School of Physics and Astronomy, Cardiff University, The Parade, Cardiff CF24 3AA, UK
¹¹⁶ Department of Physics, Oxford University, Keble Road, Oxford OX1 3RH, UK
¹¹⁷ Aurora Technology for European Space Agency (ESA), Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
¹¹⁸ ICL, Junia, Université Catholique de Lille, LITL, 59000 Lille, France
¹¹⁹ Instituto de Física Teórica UAM-CSIC, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
¹²⁰ CERCA/ISO, Department of Physics, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland OH 44106, USA
¹²¹ Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Natural Sciences, Physics Department, James-Franck-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
¹²² Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik, Karl-Schwarzschild-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
¹²³ Laboratoire Univers et Théorie, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, Université Paris Cité, CNRS, 92190 Meudon, France
¹²⁴ Departamento de Física Fundamental. Universidad de Salamanca. Plaza de la Merced s/n., 37008 Salamanca, Spain
¹²⁵ Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France
¹²⁶ Center for Data-Driven Discovery, Kavli IPMU (WPI), UTIAS, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8583, Japan
¹²⁷ Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
¹²⁸ Departamento Física Aplicada, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Murcia, Spain
¹²⁹ Instituto de Física de Cantabria, Edificio Juan Jordá, Avenida de los Castros, 39005 Santander, Spain
¹³⁰ INFN, Sezione di Lecce, Via per Arnesano, CP-193, 73100 Lecce, Italy
¹³¹ Department of Mathematics and Physics E. De Giorgi, University of Salento, Via per Arnesano, CP-I93, 73100 Lecce, Italy
¹³² INAF-Sezione di Lecce, c/o Dipartimento Matematica e Fisica, Via per Arnesano, 73100 Lecce, Italy
¹³³ CEA Saclay, DFR/IRFU, Service d’Astrophysique, Bat. 709, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
¹³⁴ Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 3FX, UK
¹³⁵ Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, PO Box 15400 Espoo FI-00 076, Finland
¹³⁶ Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, c/ Via Lactea s/n, La Laguna, 38200,Spain. Departamento de Astrofísica de la Universidad de La Laguna, Avda. Francisco Sanchez, La Laguna 38200, Spain
¹³⁷ Caltech/IPAC, 1200 E. California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
¹³⁸ Universidad de La Laguna, Departamento de Astrofísica, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
¹³⁹ Ruhr University Bochum, Faculty of Physics and Astronomy, Astronomical Institute (AIRUB), German Centre for Cosmological Lensing (GCCL), 44780 Bochum, Germany
¹⁴⁰ Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vesilinnantie 5, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
¹⁴¹ Serco for European Space Agency (ESA), Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
¹⁴² ARC Centre of Excellence for Dark Matter Particle Physics, Melbourne, Australia
¹⁴³ Centre for Astrophysics & Supercomputing, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia
¹⁴⁴ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, Cape Town 7535, South Africa
¹⁴⁵ DAMTP, Centre for Mathematical Sciences, Wilberforce Road, Cambridge CB3 0WA, UK
¹⁴⁶ Kavli Institute for Cosmology Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0HA, UK
¹⁴⁷ Department of Astrophysics, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
¹⁴⁸ Department of Physics, Centre for Extragalactic Astronomy, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
¹⁴⁹ IRFU, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
¹⁵⁰ Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, LPSC-IN2P3, 53, Avenue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
¹⁵¹ INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri, Largo E. Fermi 5, 50125 Firenze, Italy
¹⁵² Dipartimento di Fisica, Sapienza Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 2, 00185 Roma, Italy
¹⁵³ Centro de Astrofísica da Universidade do Porto, Rua das Estrelas, 4150-762 Porto, Portugal
¹⁵⁴ HE Space for European Space Agency (ESA), Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
¹⁵⁵ INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico d’Abruzzo, Via Maggini, 64100 Teramo, Italy
¹⁵⁶ Theoretical astrophysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Box 516 751 37 Uppsala, Sweden
¹⁵⁷ Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii, 2680 Woodlawn Drive, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
¹⁵⁸ Mathematical Institute, University of Leiden, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CA, Leiden, The Netherlands
¹⁵⁹ Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK
¹⁶⁰ Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, UMR 9189 CRIStAL, 59000 Lille, France
¹⁶¹ Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Peyton Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
¹⁶² Space physics and astronomy research unit, University of Oulu, Pentti Kaiteran katu 1, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland
¹⁶³ Center for Computational Astrophysics, Flatiron Institute, 162 5th Avenue, 10010 New York, NY, USA

^★ Corresponding author: pierluigi.monaco@inaf.it

Received: 17 July 2025
Accepted: 19 September 2025

Abstract

We present two extensive sets of 3500+1000 simulations of dark matter haloes on the past light cone and two corresponding sets of simulated (mock) galaxy catalogues that represent the spectroscopic sample of Euclid. The simulations were produced with the latest version of the code Pinocchio and provide the largest public set of simulated skies. The mock galaxy catalogues were obtained by populating haloes with galaxies using an halo occupation distribution (HOD) model extracted from the Flagship galaxy catalogue provided by Euclid Collaboration. The Geppetto set of 3500 simulated skies was obtained by tiling a 1.2 h⁻¹ Gpc box to cover a light cone whose sky footprint is a circle with a radius of 30° for an area of 2763 deg² and a minimum halo mass of 1.5 × 10¹¹h⁻¹ M_⊙. The relatively small size of the box means that this set is unsuitable for measuring very large scales. The EuclidLargeBox set consists of 1000 simulations of 3.38 h⁻¹ Gpc and has the same mass resolution and a footprint that covers half of the sky. It excludes the Milky Way zone of avoidance. From this, we produced a set of 1000 EuclidLargeMocks on the 30° radius footprint, whose comoving volume is fully contained in the simulation box. We validated the two sets of catalogues by analysing number densities, power spectra, and two-point correlation functions to show that the Flagship spectroscopic catalogue is consistent with being one of the realisations of the simulated sets. We noted small deviations, however, that are limited to the quadrupole at k > 0.2 h Mpc⁻¹. We infer the cosmological parameters from these catalogues and demonstrate that using one realisation of EuclidLargeMocks in place of the Flagship mock produces the same posteriors to within the expected shift given by the sample variance. These simulated skies will be used for the galaxy clustering analysis of the Euclid Data Release 1 (DR1), and an even larger set of simulations is planned for the next releases.