The magnetic origin of the outer boundaries of sunspots

¹ Institut für Sonnenphysik (KIS) Georges-Köhler-Allee 401a 79110 Freiburg, Germany
² Astronomical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences Fričova 298 25165 Ondřejov, Czech Republic

^★ Corresponding author: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Received: 14 November 2025
Accepted: 15 December 2025

Abstract

Context. Sunspot boundaries are commonly outlined by contours of the continuum intensity. However, their magnetic nature has not yet been fully characterised.

Aims. We investigate the properties of the outer boundary of a long-lived sunspot, aiming to identify the magnetic property that defines it.

Methods. We analysed the magnetic properties of AR NOAA 11591 spot during its two passages across the solar disc. To this end, we used SDO/HMI continuum intensity and magnetic field parameters and determined the contours of these parameters to outline the outer boundary.

Results. During the first disc passage, in which the sunspot is in its stable phase, we find that the intensity contours at 0.9 of the mean intensity of the vicinity of the spot and isocontours of the magnetic field strength of 625 G provide an almost perfect match between the two contours. With these thresholds, the time-averaged area of mismatch is minimised, yielding an average distance between the contours of 0.58 pixel, corresponding to less than 0.26 arcsec. During the second disc passage, the spot shows clear signs of decay, and we find that the 0.9 intensity and 625 G magnetic isocontours detach from each other, coupled to the disappearance of penumbra. In this super-equipartition area, granulation still operates.

Conclusions. Based on a comparison with simulation data from our previous work, and in agreement with findings of other authors, we conclude that the outer boundary of stable sunspots is defined by an invariant magnetic field: the equipartition field. From the discrepancy between intensity and magnetic contours during the decaying phase of the sunspot, we surmise that alongside the well-established (magneto-)convective regimes of the photosphere – granular, penumbral, and umbral – a super-equipartition granular regime can be identified. In this regime, bright, but smaller granules occur where the magnetic field exceeds equipartition but remains subcritical for convection suppression.