Relative frequencies of core-collapse supernovae as a function of metallicity: Observations versus theoretical predictions

¹ Institut d’Estudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC), Edifici RDIT, Campus UPC, 08860 Castelldefels (Barcelona), Spain
² Institute of Space Sciences (ICE, CSIC), Campus UAB, Carrer de Can Magrans, s/n, E-08193 Barcelona, Spain
³ European Southern Observatory, Alonso de Córdova 3107 Vitacura, Casilla, 19001, Santiago, Chile
⁴ Institute of Astrophysics, Foundation for Research and Technology–Hellas, GR-71110 Heraklion, Greece
⁵ Physics Department, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece
⁶ Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, CNRS-Sorbonne Université, 98 bis boulevard Arago, F-75014 Paris, France
⁷ Department of Physics and Astronomy, FI-20014 University of Turku, Finland

^★ Corresponding author: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Received: 16 February 2026
Accepted: 16 April 2026

Abstract

Understanding supernova (SN) progenitors remains a major challenge in astrophysics, as it involves untangling the complex interplay between stellar physics (e.g. evolution, binarity, and explosion) and environments (e.g. metallicity and the star formation rate). To address this, we present relative frequencies of core-collapse SNe (CCSNe) as a function of metallicity using two complementary samples: (i) all literature SNe that have associated host galaxy parameters (absolute magnitudes, stellar masses, and/or oxygen abundances); and (ii) SNe classified between 2019 and 2024 with host magnitude information, including distance-limited subsamples within 50 Mpc and 100 Mpc. We find that CCSNe from the literature sample are associated with luminous galaxies, reflecting both the higher stellar content of such systems and the selection biases inherent to targeted surveys. In contrast, the distance-limited subsamples provide a less biased view, showing that hydrogen-rich SNe (SNe II) are more commonly found in lower-luminosity galaxies than stripped-envelope SNe (SESNe). Comparisons between the literature sample and the distance-limited subsamples indicate that trends derived from global measurements remain consistent. For the SESNe-to-SNe II ratios, we confirm a slight increase with metallicity, reflecting a higher fraction of SESNe in metal-rich environments. Comparison with theoretical predictions shows that models that include either binary interactions or rotation can broadly reproduce the observed trends, although degeneracies remain and no single scenario uniquely explains the data. Overall, our results provide observational constraints on massive-star evolution and highlight the key role of metallicity and binarity in shaping the observed diversity of CCSNe.