Fig. 4
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Magnetopause standoff distance (Rmsd/Rp) of TRAPPIST-1e under four different stellar wind conditions: sub-Alfvénic (a), transition (b), super-Alfvénic (c), and CME-like (d). Each panel shows Rmsd as a function of planetary magnetic dipole strength (Bp = 0.32, 0.64, 1.28 G) for three magnetic axis tilt angles (0°, 23.5°, and 45°), with solid lines representing simulation results and dashed red lines indicating values predicted by the theoretical expression. In all scenarios, Rmsd increases with Bp and decreases with magnetic axis tilt. The transition case produces the largest magnetospheric extension, while the CME scenario exhibits the most severe compression, with Rmsd approaching ~1.5 Rp under the most unfavourable configurations, implying strong limitations on potential habitability.
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