Transmission spectra of NGTS-5b with the median, 1σ, and 2σ confidence intervals of the retrieved hybrid model assuming equilibrium chemistry (Model E, left) and free chemistry (Model F, right). Top row: transmission spectra and retrieved models incorporating both atmospheric and stellar contamination effects, after correcting for the best-fit vertical offset (∆_offset) derived from the joint retrieval. Second row: wavelength-dependent stellar contamination factors inferred from the retrieval. Third row: transmission spectra and corresponding models after correcting for stellar contamination. Bottom row: Reference models illustrating the individual contributions of key species.