The demographics of core-collapse supernovae

The role of binary evolution and interaction with the circumstellar medium

¹ Argelander Institut für Astronomie Auf dem Hügel 71 DE-53121 Bonn, Germany
² Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie Auf dem Hügel 69 DE-53121 Bonn, Germany
³ Department of Particle Physics and Astrophysics, Weizmann Institute of Science 234 Herzl Street IL-7610001 Rehovot, Israel

^★ Corresponding author: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Received: 6 October 2025
Accepted: 2 December 2025

Abstract

Context. The observational properties of core-collapse supernovae are shaped by the envelopes of their progenitors. In massive binary systems, mass-transfer drastically alters the pre-supernova structures compared to single stars, which leads to a diversity in supernova explosions.

Aims. We computed the distribution of core-collapse supernova properties based on comprehensive detailed grids of single and binary stellar evolution models.

Methods. We conducted a grid-based population synthesis to produce a synthetic population of core-collapse supernovae and compared it to observed supernova samples. To do this, we applied various explodability and merger criteria to our models. In line with earlier results, we identified interacting supernova progenitors as those stars that undergo core collapse during or shortly after a Roche-lobe overflow phase.

Results. With an interacting binary fraction of 68%, our models predict that two-thirds of all core-collapse supernovae are Type IIP/L and one-third are Type Ibc. This agrees with recent volume-limited supernova surveys. We find that 76% of the Type Ibc supernova progenitors took part in a previous binary mass transfer (mostly as a mass donor), but 63% of the Type IIP/L supernova progenitors did this as well (mostly as mass gainers). This yields a much broader envelope mass distribution than expected from single stars. Mass-transfer-induced interacting supernovae make up ∼5% of all core-collapse supernovae, which is close to the observed fractions of Type IIn and Type Ibn supernovae. When a disk or toroidal geometry of the circumstellar medium is assumed for Type IIn supernovae, our models predict a bimodal distribution of the radiated energies that is similar to the distribution deduced from observations.

Conclusions. While we found the effect of binary evolution on the relative number of Type Ibc and Type IIP/L supernovae to be moderate, it leads to lower average ejecta masses in Type Ibc and Type IIb supernovae and can lead to higher pre-supernova masses in Type IIP/L supernovae than in single stars. Binary models are also able to reproduce the number and properties of interacting supernovae.