Predictions of the halo formation time (t_1/2) and corresponding accuracy assessment for the three CNN models. Left panel: scatter plots (black points) showing the true versus predicted t_1/2 values for the test dataset. Contour lines indicate the joint two-dimensional distribution, and the dashed 45-degree line represents perfect prediction. Right panel: probability density functions of the relative errors between predicted and true t_1/2 values, showing the median and standard deviation (1σ) for each model.